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Turkeys Brooding And Raising Guide

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Raising of Turkeys

Turkeys are not popular in ASIA. Its cause may be ignorance about their nutritive value or disliking for their eggs and meat. In Western countries mini (smaller size) turkeys which are finished around 12-13 weeks weighing 4.7 kg and midi (medium size) turkeys, finished around 15-16 weeks weighing 6-7 kg are becoming popular nowadays. Like broiler, smaller turkeys are reared in intensive system, that too not fully controlled environment, while larger birds can be raised in simple shelters of pole-barn type or even on range.

Brooding

Brooding can be done on wire floor or on concrete floor with litter. The house must be draft-free and litter should be managed properly to keep it in dry condition to reduce the risk of parasite infestations. The brooding temperature in first week may be kept at 35°C with proper insulation of house to maintain house temperature at 25- 26°C with supplementary heating during initial stage of brooding. At the same time adequate ventilation should also be provided. The temperature difference of 8-10°C between brooder area and house is maintained for efficient growth. The mortality in poults during early stage many a times, may be because of lack of feeding and drinking facilities. So these facilities should be provided under bright light.

Once heat requirement is over at 8-9 weeks of age, turkeys can be reared at cooler temperature of 16°C. Raising turkeys on deep- litter is easier method and becoming popular. The health care is offered by preventive vaccination and essential medication from time to time.

Growing

Turkeys can be very well grown on range. But it requires clean fields on which poultry or turkeys have not been raised for previous two years. The land can be best partitioned into paddocks for 500 turkeys by fencing it around 3-3.5 in high for protecting them from predators. Simple thatched shelter of straw bales and roosts are sufficent for turkeys because of their hardiness. Feeders and waterers should be kept under roof to provide protection from animals, wild birds, climate and predators.

Intensive Rearing

Adequate floor area and ample fresh air should be provided for growing birds in intensive rearing. Turkey yard with roosters, feeders and waterers under lean-to roof attached to farm building can be used for rearing. Alternatively a pole shelter in the form fully covered compound consttucted out of rough poles of timber posts or discarded railway sleeper can be installed. The roof can be made by use of wire netting overlaid with corrugated roofing material or building felt. Side etiaS and back walls are totally or partially blocked with straw bales, polythene or other sheet but front portion is fitted with large mesh netting like chain link. Waterers and feeders are approachable from front. A section of 12 x 12 in can house around 250 to 450 turkeys.

Cage system is also used to raise turkeys above ground level on small scale. Now, lot of modem units rearing turkeys on large scale are using houses like that of chicken having effective insulation,mechanised ventilation system, supplementary heating and light with other arrangement to provide controlled environment. Since turkey is a fast-growing bird, they should be provided adequate management facilities (Table 20.1) in respect of floor, feeding and watering space, as more space is always beneficial.

Because the poults grow faster they should be provided increased head room under brooder, floor space, feeding and watering space and ventilation depending on size and age. Around 7-8 weeks of age they are shifted to growing sheds to achieve still faster growth. If turkeys are to be reared in closed shelter, before shifting their bills should be trimmed to prevent cannibalism. They can be very well managed in groups of 240-270 with adequate management facility for next 12-24 weeks. When roosters are not used, some straw bales can prevent young turkeys from congregating, when groups have more strength.

Intensive rearing needs skilled management because incidence of vices and disease is on higher side in confinement. Hygiene. sanitation and cleanliness at feeding and watering places and supply of adequate clean litter are essential. Overcrowding and inadequate ventilation, many a times results in poor performance.

Feeding

Even though management of turkeys in respect of housing, lighting, sanitation and hygiene and health care is similar to chickens but feeding of them differs significantly from that of chickens (see Chapter 10 of this book).

Pouits are very slow in accepting their feed which is well-known fact. Therefore, they should be invoked to eat by providing easy access to feed with supply of ample feeders and bright light. The same thing holds good for drinking water also. All growers are supplied with ad libitum feeding pattern. Sometimes grains in measured quantity are offered in addition but at fixed timings. In case of range rearing feed should be given in measured amount with decided times, so as to be consumed by birds within short time to avoid feed consumption by wild birds or vermins.

In brooding stage upto 8 weeks, poults are provided mash containing 23-24 per cent protein, which can be reduced to 19-20 per cent by 10 weeks and 15 per cent by 17 weeks. The finishing diet is offered generally 3-4 week prior to disposal of birds. When grain ration is provided it should be necessarily supplemented with oyster shell.

A Guide To Brooding Chicks ,Rearing Of Baby Chicks

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CHICKS

This is also known as brooding management. In case of layer birds, rearing chicks from day-old age to 7-8 weeks are usually reared in brooder houses and then transferred to grower houses, whereas in case of broilers even after 3 weeks of brooding, they are reared in the same house by increasing space and other requirements and by removing brooders.

In case of single flock rearing, the best time to house the chicks for laying in future, is from January to March of year, so that pullets will be in high production during winter months, when egg prices are– generally better. But, this is difficult to adopt for multi-age rearing.

The managemental care of chicks can be studied step by step as under:

Adequate Ventilation

The brooder house must be properly ventilated at the same time it should be devoid from drafts. The drafts can adversely affect growth and liveability of chicks. The excessive dust in poultry house can cause irritation of respiratory tract of a day old chicks and can increase disease incidence. Similarly, high moisture levels also can lead more ammonia fumes causing again irritation of eyes and respiratory distress.

Maintenance of Sanitation and Hygiene

The brooder house must be carefully cleaned and disinfected well in advance before housing new batch of chicks in it. The usual and required practice is the house should be give rest of 3 to 4 weeks in layer operations and around 2.5 weeks in broiler operations after cleaning and disinfection of house. The appliances and equipments like feeders, waterers, brooders which can be removed, be taken out and cleaned, disinfected and allowed sundrying of them. The manure, should be removed and the floor may be scrapped to remove all dirt. The inside and outside of house also be cleaned under pressure water for proper removal of dirt and dust. Before doing this the cobwebs must be removed.

Sumithion or Malathion spray and flame-gun blowing of sheets and wire netting help in controlling insects, mites and ticks. Fresh litter be used for every new batch. The old litter should not be recycled to save expenditure. Adaptation of all in all out system is best to control diseases in poultry but it is difficult to follow for maintaining continuity of farm production. Therefore, at least chicks should be brooded away from layers or adult birds. Similarly, separate workers should be provided for chicks and adult birds to avoid cross-contamination due to direct contact. In the same way movement of workers and shifting of equipments from shed to shed should be restricted. The disinfectant foot bath necessarily be provided and used at entrance of each house. The outsiders (visitors) should be banned to enter houses of at least chicks and growers.

Bedding or Litter

It is important in case of deep-litter rearing. The convenient bedding material like rice husk, saw dust or ground-nut hulls called as litter be spread on floor with depth of about 4.5 cm. Further it can be increased to 8-10.5 cm depending on need as the age advances. The material like sugar-cane bagasse should not be used, as the sugar content in it facilitates growth of fungus on it, leading to respiratory diseases like aspergillosis. Daily raking or stirring of litter be practised to avoid caking, to keep it dry and loose to reduce ammonic al odour.

The appropriate moisture content of litter carries lot of importance because low moisture leads to dusty litter resulting in respiratory ailments while high moisture results in caking and increased heat. On an average litter should contain around 18 to 24 per cent moisture and a litter of desired condition should not form a ball when pressed in hand.

Space Under Brooder

Around 50 to 66 cm2 space under brooder per chick is recommen­ded. This mean a hover of 1 metre diameter can house 270 chicks. In case of small pens, length and width of pens should also be considered to accommodate number of chicks under brooder. Inadequate space leads to piling, increased disease incidence, studied growth, starvation and subsequently more percentage of culls.

Chick Guard

A barrier to avoid straying away of  new chicks from heat source in younger age placed at a distance around brooder in circular manner is known as chick guard. The brooder guard also protects baby chicks from drafts. Usually it is placed at a distance of 85-90 cm from edge of brooder initially and can be increased to 130 cm as the age advances. Generally it is used upto 7 to 8 days initially. The height is usually 40-45 cm.

Temperature Maintenance

Maintenance of appropriate temperature during brooding new chicks is necessary. The variation towards higher or lower side leads to more mortality or slower growth. The temperature is usually measured at level of 6 cm above floor and 6 to 8 cm inside the edge of warm zone of brooder. The temperature in first week should be around 33°C (95°F) which may be subsequently reduced by 2.6°C (5°F) each week till it reaches to room temperature around 20.5°C. But chicks are more comfortable in slightly lower temperature than recommended. The house temperature should be lower by 8 to 12°C than brooder temperature. The height of brooder depends on need of brooding temperature but at least 10 to 14 cm clear space above chicks should be available. The bulbs of different intensity like 200, 100 or 60 watts can be used to reduce or increase temperature. The infra-red lamps of 250 watts can also be used with an added advantage of germicidal effects on organisms. Pleasant movements with uniform scattering of chicks under brooder is correct guide for accuracy of temperature.

Floor Space

Appropriate floor space as per age, size and type of chicks is an important factor governing performance of chicks. If slightly more space than requirement is alloted it does not matter much, but less space than recommended, adversely affects overall performance than recommended, adversely affects overall performance of chicks. inadequate floor space leads to slower and uneven growth; more number of culls, increased mortality, poor feed, efficiency and in extreme cases pecking and cannibalism. Floor space of about 450 cm2 to start with is adequate which can be increased by about 500 cm after every 4 weeks till pullets reach to 21 weeks of age. Broiler can be alloted 450 cm2 space initially which may be increased to 850 cm2 after 4 weeks.

Feeder and Water Space

The requirement of feeding space varies from 2 to 7 cm (linear) per chick from 0 to 8 weeks. Similarly, water space required is from (15 to 1.5 cm (linear) per chick. For efficient, growth of chicks frequ.ent feedings (4-5 times in a day) with availability of fresh water all the times are beneficial.

Light

Chicks are provided continuous light, i.e. sunlight is adequate during day time while in the night it can be supplied by using electric bulbs or tubes upto 8 weeks of age. Light helps in faster development of feathers, increased feed intake and essential for vision.

Vaccination and Debeaking

Adopting an appropriate schedule of vaccination is prime requirement of providing proper health care to chicks. The schedule of vacci­nation varies according to disease prevalence in different areas. Debeaking either on 1st day or on 6-9th day or 3-4th weeks is carried out to prevent cannibalism and feed wastage.

Overview of Poultry Industry in Australia

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The Australian Poultry Industry offers its services to the market with only a few products. Although the land mass of the country is similar to that of the United States of America, still the poultry products that are exported are quite minor. One major reason for this can be linked to the rainfall that area experiences. The current poultry population of the country is nearly 30 million which indeed elucidates the poor rainfall conditions. Consequently, till now the country has not managed to make its mark among the top poultry producers of the world.

History and Development of Poultry Farming in Australia

The poultry industry of Australia is comparatively young, primarily because of the fact that the first poultry farm houses had been made in the country nearly 40 years back. The same applies to the meat industry which is still quite young in comparison to the other poultry producers of the region. Till the 1960’s there was no sort of governmental records about the start of the poultry production in the region, due to which offering a detailed account in this regard is difficult. There are a number of estimates that state nearly 3 million broilers had been produced in the year 1951, in comparison to the production of 460 million in the year 2007.

Major Poultry Producers in Australia

The major poultry producers in the region include Baiada Poultry Inc. Inghams Enterprises and Turi Foods. Baiada is privately run Poultry Company that is presently the largest poultry company in the country. It has always been known for providing some of the most premium quality products and has been offering its services since the year 1916. The same applies to Inghams Enterprises which also known to be in the lead in terms of chicken and turkey meat. The products offered by these companies are available all over Australia and New Zealand. Moreover, the company also offers a number of non-poultry products including stock feed and related items. The rise in the chicken production in Australia can be credited to these two leading companies.

major poultry producers

Broiler Production in Australia-Intensive and
 Free Range Farming Paradigms

Like the global trends all over the world, Australia has also shown a major growth in terms of broiler production. The two companies mentioned above now control nearly 70 % of the poultry markets with their high quality and top of the line products. Turi Foods controls 10 % of the poultry production. The bird placement density at the farming levels of production is as high as 0.55b per square feet. Some of the companies also prefer to place sexed birds in the settings in order to meet the demands of the markets. The product segmentation in Australia can be divided into two halves. The free range chicken account for 20 to 25 % of the poultry markets, while the remaining amounts are filled by the standard broilers. The high fixed costs in terms of poultry production are yet another reason for which the production is slow in comparison to the other countries. Moreover, the broilers farms are most of the times contracted for doing the job. For this reason, they offer their facilities including the litter, shelter, feed, necessary utilities and the labor for the management of the birds.

Broiler-farm-contract-growers

Poultry Consumption

Poultry meat consumption in the country has recently overtaken the use of beef. It is quite evident from this pattern that most of the poultry production in the country is dedicated for being used by within the country. The prime source of meat consumption is chicken followed by turkey. The reason for the low turkey consumption is its usage in times of Christmas only. On the other hand, due to the low preference of the beef in the country, most of the beef products are being exported. These patterns of export do come to effectuate the levels of protein availability in the region. Lamb consumption in Australia has also been declining over the span of the past 40 years. In the past the consumption rate used to be around 100lbs per capital, but it has now fallen to 25 lbs. The lamb meat is perceived to be a less healthy meat, which can be one reason leading towards the fall.

poultry consumption in Australia

Poultry Imports and Exports

Most recently, the poultry exports from the region have been hit by the emergence of the bird flu. In lines to this disease, the exports from the country have now been reduced to half. Although the poultry farms in Australia and other production houses have taken a number of evasive measures for controlling the outbreak and for raising the confidence of other countries in their products, still the poultry exports from Australia are not being considered to be credible. The major countries which made use of the Australian poultry products include Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, US and South Africa. In terms of the imports, the turkey meat is in the lead, which has been increasing on a yearly basis.

Famous Breeds

Famous poultry breeds in the country include The Araucana, The Australorp, orpingtons, The Plymouth Rock and The Rhode Island Reds, all of which are most used for the purpose of egg production in Australia. Most of the chicken breeds are owned by the hatcheries that use them for dual purposes.

FMOUS BREEDS

 

 


Brooding And Rearing Of Ostrich Chicks,Poultry Management Guide

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Brooding and Rearing

The brooding period is a very critical time and can be a time of high mortality, if proper management is not used. The brooding  arrangement must protect chicks from predators and  inclement weather  . The arrangement should be  sanitary, dry and well-ventilated. The floor  pen must be rough enough to provide firm  footing for the chicks. Not  to cover the litter with slick materia  or  newspaper , as chicks would develop “spraddle legs” which is fatal.

brooding ostrich

The temperature at chicks level should be 31.1 to 33°C in the 4- by 5-feet pen foe the first two weeks. Gradually reduce heat upto 23.5°C from the third  to the eight week. At 6-8 weeks of age, chicks can be left in range outside in good weather, but shelter at night. They can be managed in groups of 25 to 50 birds.

General Management Tips
  • Provide adequate shelter in pasture plots.
  • Pens should protect adults and older juveniles from extreme
    climate such as snow, ice, heavy winds, cold rain and sleet.
  •  temperaturer should be located inside shelter to condition birds to enter the shelters freely.
    • Feeder and waterers should be in open type and adjustable so that they can kept at chest height of the birds. Clean the waterers daily.
    • Caretakers should spend time with chicks and young tame- them.·      Move gently among the birds, taking care to avoid the possibility of  frightening and hand-feeding of tidbits o juveniles is recommended.
    • Never make overcrowding in the pen. First few days provide sanitised water along with anti-stress agents.
    • Ensure proper mineral and vitamins in the feed for healthy growth of chicks and to void leg deformities.
    • Do not handle the birds during hot hours,as Birds get immediately excited. Hence calm and quite environment in the pen is required.
    • Never keep the sharp objects, pebbles accessible to the birds. Birds are mischievous and grab anything that comes in their vicinity.
    • Spraddle condition of the legs that is  commonly seen can be managed by holding the legs together during the initial 72 hours of chicks. This can be done particularly in the incubator.
    • Commercial feed is absolutely essential.
    • Birds require at least 1 acre floor space with six feet high chain link fence.
    • Birds produce hide, leather or feather are sold at high price.

 

 

The Significance and use of poultry manure as a fertilizer

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The use of Poultry manure fertilizer is becoming a common practice (especially Chicken manure as fertilizer) with many farmers throughout the world as this matter content has in store various nutritional elements for various fields or crops. These nutritional elements are very effective in increasing the productivity and rapid growth of farms e.g. farms that produce vegetables. What manure basically is, its significance and various other factors related to it can be thoroughly understood under the following headings.

1. What is poultry manure and what are some of its components?

Chicken manure is basically a waste material which is organic in nature and comprises of urine and feces of animals which are related to poultry e.g. chicken.Poultry manure is a mixture of certain types of bedding material such as sawdust or wood shavings.The manure is acquired by cleaning of the poultry houses on regular basis where thin bedding layers are removed along with such manure. So the manure which is basically the waste from chicken dropping and other mixtures ,when used as fertilizer is called Chicken fertilizer.  Now the components or constituents found in the manure are dependent on the types of birds, their feed ration and proportions of droppings to litter, the handling systems of the manure and the types of litter. However, the most common components are Potassium, Nitrogen and phosphorus.

poultry manure and its components

2. Why fresh manure not to be used, timing of usage and 
precautions involved?

It is preferred to use manure after within 120 days of the harvesting of crops. Similarly it is preferable not to use fresh manure because it may contain certain bacteria which are harmful for human health and may cause diseases. It is therefore suggest that the manure should be used after it is composted because composting not only enhances the nutrients but also avoids the risks of your exposure to different diseases. The composting procedure may involve 3 to 4 weeks after which such manure can be used as fertilizer in gardens and for crops. Always wash your hands thoroughly after they come in contact with the manure or the compost and especially before eating so that no bacteria can enter your body.

fresh manure

3.advantages of poultry manure fertilizer in comparison 
with other fertilizers

Poultry manure fertilizer or a Chicken fertilizer has some of its distinct benefits in contrast to the synthetic or the inorganic fertilizers available in the market. The first benefit of their use is that they are more economical for the cause as compared to inorganic fertilizers. They have the tendency to condition the soil better then the inorganic ones. This better conditioning of the soil will result in an extra yield. Research has shown that the yields of crops like Cotton was significantly higher when a Chicken manure organic fertilizer was used.  The use of Chicken manure for fertilizer not only brings ecomical benefits to farmers but is also less harmful to the environment in comparison to inorganic fertilizers.  Not only can it be used for the fields but it can also be used as garden fertilizer.  Poultry manure or a Poultry fertilizer or litter as fertilizer is basically a mix of droppings of chicken or birds like pigeon, ducks and turkey. They are generally hotter as compared to other organic fertilizers like those of cow and horse. They need to be composted first or else they have the tendency to burn plants. They are high in nutrients like Nitrogen and potassium. Horse manure is on the other hand not as rich in Nitrogen as chicken manure but is richer when compared with cow manure. So a Chicken litter fertilizer you can say is rich in some components in contrast to others but the usage of fertilizers can vary according to the crops.

organic poultry fertilizer

4. Deep litter in commercial farms and backyard poultry

Deep litter is a housing system of animals which is based on repeated or continuous spreading of sawdust or straw material. The initial layer is made as bedding for animals and the other layers are added when the litter gets soiled. They are also known as backyard litter or domestic litter when used in domestic poultry.Chicken manure pellets which are used as fertilizers are obtained from the manure of the chicken in the cages or coop.

deep litter

 

Poultry by Product meal-Food for Pets

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Poultry/Chicken by product meal is a highly protein component which is manly used in pets food.it has many components in it such as bones,undeveloped eggs and other poultry wastage. Poultry meal and poultry by product meal is mainly used in preparation of dog food in many western countries.

Technique for Preparation of Hatchery Byproduct Meal

The main aim during processing hatchery waste is destruction of pathogens, reducing moisture % improvement of storage and handling  qualities of material along with maintenance of nutritive value and palatability of finished product to the maximum possible extent_

De-hydration technique have been found quite successful for this purpose. This involves pre treatment, treating with chemicals like formalin, paraformaldehyde, propionic acid and acetic acid. Common – 0.7 per cent formalin – preservative, bactericidal, fungicidal, grinding, heating and drying in a tripple pass rotary drier to a moisture level of 5 per cent in the end product. Heat is applied in the form of steam to evaporate moisture and separate the fat. The time for cooking ranges between 2.5 and 10 hours depending on the size and charge used. The cooked material can be dried at 100°C for 10 hours in a forced draft oven.

Nutrient Composition of Hatchery Waste

Vendepopuliere (1983) has reported that hatchery by-product meal with 65 per cent moisture on an average contained 22.20 per cent protein, 24.60 per cent calcium 0.33 per cent phosphorus and 9.90 per cent fat on dry matter basis.

Verma (1974) concluded that hatchery by-product meal prepared from infertile eggs, contained 35 per cent protein, and 5250 kcal/kg metabolisable energy with gross protein value of 86.5.

Utilisation of Hatchery Waste

After converting hatchery waste into hatchery by-product meal, it can be safely and efficiently used as poultry feed ingredient. It can be used to replace partly soyabean meal, fish-meal, meat or bone meal and dried skim milk in various poultry rations; preferably starting, growing and laying diets. Only its palatability and acceptability should be maintained by using proper technique of processing.

Further, its utilisation helps in reducing poultry feed cost directly with indirect utility in reducing pollution problem improving hatchery operations and saving space used for dumping waste.

Poultry Layer Management,A Guide To Optimal Egg Production

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MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS

Maximum hen-housed egg production with fair egg size, feed efficiency and minimum mortality are the prime goals of layer farming. Beside good genetic make up of bird, management during laying plays an important role to achieve the above-mentioned targets in egg production. Following are the vital aspects of efficient layer management:

Segregation and Transfer of Pullets

Ready to lay pullets should be shifted from grower to layer sheds around 16 to 18 weeks to allow 1 to 2 weeks adaptation period before laying starts. During pullet rearing it is quite possible that inspite of providing highly suitable management facilities, some pullets may lack in size and development of body. In real sense, genetics itself allows one to two per cent culling. Such under­developed pullets should be segregated while transferring them to layer sheds and be housed in separate compartments of cages or sections of house in case of deep-litter, to allow them to avail extra nutrition to achieve normal standard of growth. These segregated pullets are fed 2 per cent extra protein along with the additional minerals and vitamins including liver tonics to gain normal growth within 3-4 weeks. The pullets which are blind, crippled, emaciated, injured, and infected are discarded at the time of shifting.

Floor, Feed and Water Space

Floor space of   1800  to 2200 cm2 per bird on deep-litter and 337 to 375 cm2 per bird in cages is recommended for layers. Breeders are provided with little higher space of 2300 to 2700 cm2 depending on size of birds. About 12 to 15 cm linear feeder space and 2.5 cm water space per bird is adequate during laying. On deep-litter system one laying nest for every 4 to 5 hens with perch at entrance is provided for comfortable laying and clean egg production. Inade­quate management facilities leads to reduced egg production and feed efficiency; increased disease incidence and mortality and sometimes cannibalism also.

Temperature in Layer House

The comfortable temperature for optimum laying ranges from 18.3 to 21.5°C (65°-70°F). Both higher and lower temperature affect the egg production and quality of eggs adversely. Egg production starts declining when temperature rises more than 27°C while egg size starts reducing from temperature of 24.5°C onwards only. The higher temperature in general is more harmful to birds than lower temperature. The effects of cold whether become more prominent when temperature drops below 12.8°C.

Supply of Artificial Light

From 21 weeks onwards, the layers should be provided with artificial light, starting with total 14 hours duration and gradually (1/2 hour/ week) be increased to reach to 16 hours and kept constant upto 42 weeks of age.

At the age of 43 weeks it is again gradually increased to 17 hours. The day length is considered to be 11 hours in winter and rainy season while 12 hours in summer season for providing total light. The total artificial light may be divided equally in morning and evening.

The appropriate lighting schedule stimulates egg production by 4 to 6 per cent, while irregularities in lighting can cause drop in egg production. The intensity of light at birds eye level is important to stimulate egg production, which is 0.9 to 1.2 foot candle. A bulb of 40 watts with reflector hanged at height of 2.2 m above floor level for 3.5 m2 floor space, provides correct intensity. But the bulbs must be cleaned for dirt periodically (once in 15 days) for bright illumi-nation. Layers should never be exposed to reduced light schedule which lowers down production considerably.

Breeder management is similar to layer management except their diet contains extra protein, Mn and Vitamin E to ensure desired fertility and hatchability. Breeder males and females should be reared separately from day-old age, which ensures uniformity in growth, reduces culls and gives better production during laying.

Reducing Stress

Factors such as vaccination, medication specially antibiotics, disease outbreaks, improper and restricted feeding, extreme weather changes, starvation, high production and shifting from one to another house induces stress in chickens. This results in drop in egg production, poor growth and increased susceptibility to diseases. Administration of electrolytes, vitamins, minerals, controlling effects of weather changes helps to reduce or combat the stress on birds.

Feeding and Watering

Not only the quality but quantity and methods of feeding adopted also play an important role in making profits from layers. The chickens like white leghorn layers should consume about 105-110 gm of feed/day/bird, while dual purpose breeds like RIR, New­hampshire, etc. will eat around 115-120 g/day/bird on an average. Higher or lower intake less than recommended requirement indicates impairment in quality of feed or stress/disease condition which should be corrected accordingly. Minimum two feedings should be followed to avoid staleness and wastage of feed. All mash or pallet feeding is good method of feeding to achieve optimum performance of layers.

Birds should be provided fresh, clean, cool and potable drinking water all the time. As a thumb rule bird drinks 2.5 to 3 times of water of feed consumed depending on season and size of birds.

Vaccination

From 42 weeks of age onwards, every 3 months, layers should be vaccinated lasota vaccine through drinking water to boost up immunity and to maintain proper titre levels of antibodies against Ranikhet disease. Automatic vaccinator is being used nowadays

Culling

It is one of the constant and important operation to be practiced at- least bimonthly to improve economy of farming and to remove focus of infection.

Record Keeping and Analysing

Relevant record keeping of feed intake, egg production, vaccination, medication, mortality, culls, receipts and expenditure and periodical analysis of them helps in correcting mistakes and improvement in management to increase profitability.

Housing

The layer houses should be well-ventilated, reasonably cool in summer and warm in winter but free from drafts. The open-sided poultry sheds which are popular in our country, fulfills above requirements with specific management in summer and winter. They are cheap for construction and easy for maintenance also.

BREEDING OF POULTRY

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Genetic composition is a major factor which governs the productive performance in variousaspects of livestock. About 80 per cent performance of poultry is dependent on genecomponents and 20 per cent on environment component in exploiting genetic potential to itsmaximum possible extent. Basically if birds are of poor genetic make-up, whatever may bethe highly scientific management conditions prevail, they may not be desired economical andprofitable producers. The combination and fixing of high quality genes in specific breeds,varieties and strains involve consistent scientific and skillful breeding practices. It ishighly technical skilled job which requires persistent continuous efforts for long-time.Gregor Mendel is supposed to be the father of genetics who has formulated some offundamental laws in genetics on his observations on which most of today’s genetic skills depend.

BASIS OF VARIABILITY

No two individuals are similar. Each individual differs from another due to the genetic variation. This is because each parent transmits one gene or pair of genes to its offsprings and variability depends on the heterozygosity of number of gene pairs ofparents. A sample half of inheritance of each parent and sample half of environment isreceived by each offspring. The chicken has total 39 pairs of chromosomes and each carries many genes, some probably 100 also. The number of gametes produced are abundant resulting into enormous hereditary combinations. The expression of character is due to one or moregenes. The basic unit of inheritance is gene and not the character.

INHERITANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
As already stated earlier variation in any flock is not only due to genetic component but environment component is also responsible for it. The exploitation of genetic variation is rather slow because several genes are involved in expression of each character in addition to which environment, hormones, and management conditions are also responsible for producing response. The hatchability, fertility, viability (liveability), resistance to disease, egg production, flesh production are the characters of economic and fundamental importance, where environment frequently plays its role for full exploitation of these characters. For example, inspite of high hatchability genes, poor hatching can be obtained due to faulty incubation conditions or low egg production can be noted in highly genetic potential birds because of imbalanced diet and poor housing conditions.

SEX RATIO AND FERTILITY
The fertility in poultry to large extent depends on genetics and selection of bird as an inherent character, but it is equally affected by better management than inheritance. The most important management point for it is sex ratio formating. On an average one male for 15 to 16 females for replacement pullets and one male for 10 to 12 females for broiler breeders is optimum for good fertility, depending on light or heavy breeds.

SELECTION
The choice of allowing individuals to become parents for next generation is selection. In other words differential rate of repro-duction is also called as selection. It is necessary to maintain or increase variation in population and one of the important force for geneticimprovement.

Kinds of Selection:
There are two kinds of selection, viz. natural or artificial.

 Natural Selection

In case of random mating nature itself selects individuals for mating in flocks or population by preferential mating.

Artificial Selection
The selection applied by man with records and by adopting different methods is artificial selection. This involves intrapopulation and interpopulation selection.

Basis of Selection (Systems of Selection)

Depending on the base used for selection it is divided into the following systems:
Individual Selection
It is also called as mass selection. Because the individual is selected from mass (flock or large number) on its own phenotypic value and put together in mass for mating, it is known as mass selection. The system is adopted for traits of high heritability and expressed in both sexes, where it results in faster genetic improvement.

Family Selection
The individuals are selected on the performance of their whole family. It is useful in case of low heritability characters like egg production and which is expressed in females only; similarly viability, where phenotype is not reliable indicator of genotype. The sire or dam family averages are compared to population mean and the whole family is either selected or rejected for higher or lower means, respectively. The system involves two types of selection, viz, progeny testing and sib selection:

Progeny testing

The individual isselected on the basis of performance of it’s progeny, i.e. sons and daughters. But thebiggest problem with this system is the time consumed to obtain performance values of progeny. The part year production values, e.g. egg production upto 40 weeks of age can be efficiently used to overcome the difficulty of time consumption as it is positively correlated with full year production to make use of this selection system.

Sib testing

Sisters and brothers of individual are called as sibs. To avoid time consuming problem in progeny testing, individuals are selected on the basis of performance and appearance of their brothers and sisters. Similarly, to select birds for traits which are expressed in one sex only, for example, egg production which is expressed in pullets or hens, cockerels or cocks are selected on performance of their sisters.

Pedigree Selection:

Pedigree is the record of an individual’s ancestors including parents. This selection is also important because sample half of genes from each parent is transmitted to each of it’s offsprings. It is of immense importance in selection at earlier age, when traits in question might have not expressed themselves, i.e. it’s greatest applicability is in initial selection of sex-limited traits.

Methods of Selection on Phenotypic Values

The net value of an individual depends on many traits having varying economic importance.
The heritability and magnitude of genetic variance of traits differ from traits. The various traits may have phenotypic and genetic inter-relationships among themselves. Therefore, if too many traits are to be selected at a time, it may result in less improvement in specific traits. In this connection, Hazel and Lush have examinedsuperiority of the following selection methods:
Tandem Method
This method involves selection of only one trait at a time for improvement till satisfactory level of improvement in it, selection efforts are then relaxed for this trait and concentrated on second trait, and so on. The improvement is simultaneous for traits which are positively correlated and vice versa for negatively correlated traits. But this is again time consuming method.
Independent Culling Levels
Selection for many traits can bedone at a time or simultaneously by setting up minimum standard level for each trait. Any
individual below of any one or more levels is culled irrespective of meritorious performance in other traits. Such method of selection will result in favouring of medium type of birds and may reject outstanding individuals in many economic important traits as they may not qualify themselves in traits of lesser economic importance.
Selection Index
Hazel and Lush (1943) have invented this method wherein selection for several traits at a time can be done by rectifying drawbacks in previous methods. It is also called as total score method as it includes estimation of the bird’s total breeding value (net merit) for two or more traits at a time. Each trait is given weightage depending on its economic importance, heritability and inter-relationships (genetic and phenotypic) among traits. The score of index of each trait is added to arrive at total score index. The method is more efficient in all circumstances, as it saves superior individuals in important economic traits even they are inferior in less important characters.

IDEAL BREEDING PROGRAMME
As seen earlier most of selection systems have some or the other limitations. Therefore, ideal breeding programme consists of combination of various selection systems, and method can be better used along with individual, family and pedigree selection systems. The traits like egg production, viability, fertility, etc. which have low heritability, can be
improved by adopting family selection. On the other hand successful improvement in characters like egg weight, shell quality, sexual maturity, growth rate, confirmation can be achieved by using individual selection. Therefore, a wise breeder fixes required characters in his bird by combining useful methods for his operation.
Selection of Birds for Breeding
Selection of Egg Type Lines
The suitable age for selecting egg type birds is 10 to 14 weeks where inferior birds are removed from the flocks. The body confirmation and development of structural body parts are given more weightage than body weight in selecting these breeders. Thebirds from each lines are selected separately and most of breeding procedures involve mating of males and females from various lines. The chicks from each line are sexed at day-old age and inaccuracies in sexing may lead to mixing of cockerels with pullets and vice versa. These birds of sexing error should be removed prior to mating. The unwanted males must be removed as early as possible to reduce the cost.

Basis for Selection of Individual Males and Females
1. The pedigree in past is assessed for several pedigree generations.
2. The appearance and performance of individual and its sibs in present is used for making final judgement.

3. The appearance and performance of individual in future is judged by appearance and performance of its progeny, generally of sons and daughters.

Selection of Meat Type Lines
As there is high correlation between weight of meat type parents and their broiler offsprings at eight weeks of age, their selection preferably is done at this age. The selection pressure required for males is more than that of for females. The correlation between weight of parents at sexual maturity and broiler offsprings is little due to which selection on weight basis of birds going into lay or after eight weeks is very difficult. Even though same percentage of birds are removed from each sex, more selection pressure

(culling) is applied for males than females. This does not result in any differences in the effects for next generation as males required are fewer than females.

Selection of males
First of all we should know percentage of males to be retained at eight weeks of age which is more than the requirement of sexual maturity. Usually 60 per cent males are retained at day-old age. Forty per cent at eight weeks and 12-15 per cent at sexual maturity. The percentage is more at initial and middle stages because of depletion due to mortality and culling in later period. For selection at least weigh 15 per cent birds individually in a flock or in pen as representative of all birds at eight weeks of age.Record these weights on a separate sheet starting from heaviest and ending with lightest.According to percentage required count the number of males to be kept out of these 15 per cent, starting from heaviest with counting towards lightest. The figure of weight at which percentage of retaining is reached becomes the minimum weight for selection. Now discard the males weighing below minimum standard weight fixed by individual weighing. The sample weight must be taken in every pen of house to nullify effect of variation.

Selection of females
The selection for females is done with lesser selection pressure than males. About 80 per cent females are retained at eight weeks of age. Body weight is not much exerted for selection of females. The selection some times may be done with same procedure adopted for males but usually it is done by following the normal method of culling, i.e. birds are selected on the basis of general appearance, body condition, confirmation, moulting pattern, etc.

Methods of Mating
The methods of mating play major role in obtaining fertility of eggs from breeder birds.There are five commonly used methods of mating, out of which pen mating and flock mating are of commercial importance. While stud mating, shift mating and artificial insemination (AI) are important from research point of view.

Pen Mating
Generally followed for pedigree hatching where parents of offsprings can be determined with trap nesting of females. More number of females are allowed to mate with single male in small flock in separate pens for each male. But fertility may not be as good as of flock mating due to likeness in mating, i.e. the male heading the pen may not like to mate with particular female and vice-versa.

Flock Mating
This is the common method of mating used in most of the breeding practises. About 20-30 males are run with 250-300 females in flocks in a section of house. This reduces the chances of likeness or social order in mating and very good fertility is obtained, but parentage of offspring cannot be known.

Stud Mating
The male is housed in a pen or coop and females are individually kept one by one with male for mating time only and removed. The method is excellent for increasing the utility of outstanding males to increase the offsprings mating, and therefore, it is more expensive.

Shift Mating
In this method males are shifted from one pen to another after certain period of time, which helps in thorough testing of females as they are exposed to several males for mating.But to maintain accuracy of parentage this method is little difficult because fertile eggs can be produced for one to two weeks even after removing male from that pen. The recommendation for overcoming this problem is to discard eggs for one week after shifting of old male and housing of new male in particular pen. By adopting shifting after short span of time, large number of males can be tested with adequate assessment of females also for breeding.

Artificial Insemination
The method is not commonly used in chicken but it is quite common in turkey breeding due to lower fertility problems. The reasons for not becoming it common may be the non- availability of trained personnel, more labour involved and handling stress to birds. But if practised, it is excellent method to increase the efficiency of breeding programme. Because it increases the utility of outstanding males, eliminates completely social order in mating, minimises risk of disease spread and increases accuracy in parentage determination, it is more advantageous.

Breeding  Season
In fact poultry birds are prolific breeders and they bred in all seasons. Therefore, there is no specific breeding season for poultry unlike that of other livestock but fertility percentage may vary in different seasons. For that also only season may not be the sole cause for reduced fertility. The season may act as minor contributing factor to lower down fertility. For example in summer season fertility is little bit reduced than mansoon and winter. That is excessive heat in summer may reduce breeding instinct of birds adding to causes of lowering down of fertility. Therefore, it may be said that rainy and winter seasons are comparatively better seasons for poultry breeding than summer.

BREEDING SYSTEMS IN POULTRY
The object of any breeding programme is to improve genetic make-up of progeny by maintaining genetic variance, for increasing the productive performance along with descent appearance. For keeping the variation, which is effect of heterozygosity, homozygosity is also essential to induce variation. At time of reaching of selection limit or selection plateau, status and condition is maintained to obtain highest production for some period and selection with breeding system in opposite direction can be adopted to avoid drastic deterioration of genetic composition which may result in sudden drop in productive performance. Therefore, the breeding systems used in any breeding programme should have the following objectives:

i. Increase in homozygosity which constitutes inbreeding,
ii. Increase in heterozygosity which involves outbreeding.
iii. Maintain the status quo position which is done by random mating. Ultimate result of breeding in term of genetic language is alteration of gene and genotype frequency, either in forward or backward direction as per desire and requirement.

Systems to Enhance Homozygosity
Any breeding system that increases homozygosity within breed or variety is known as inbreeding or rather to increase homozygosity inbreeding is adopted. Inbreeding is mating of closely related individuals wherein relationship is more close than the average of population. In inbreeding there will be one or more common ancestors from which part of gene samples (gametes) are drawn. Depending on closeness of relationship among the individuals, inbreeding can be grouped into three types, viz, close inbreeding, line breeding, and foi !nation of strain.

Close inbreeding
The mating of parent and progeny of mating between sibs is known as close inbreeding. This is followed for formation of inbreed lines and if relationship is less closer than that of cousins then inbreeding effect is very mild which cannot be counted also. As stated earlier with breeding of close relative the heterozygosity can be brought down to 10-12 per cent or even below it in 10-12 generations.

Line Breeding
It is inbreeding within the highly admired sire or dam ancestoral line to increase number of individuals of outstanding male or female in population. The daughters of different generations are mated back to outstanding sire or sons of various generations are mated back to outstanding sire or dam, so that resultant progeny has more and more percentage of genes of these outstanding parents. An inbred line should have at least 50 per cent inbreeding co-efficient. Mating of full sister-brother for three generations or of half, brother-sister for six generations can produce inbred line with 50 per cent inbreeding co-efficient.

Formation of Strain
This involves mating of double cousins, hence it is called as milder form of inbreeding.This is done to establish high productive traits in population to use it for production of commercials. It is adopted within the breed, so that selection can be carried out within and between strains to evolve better commercials. It also reduces heterozygosity but a slower rate than close or line breeding.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF BREEDING

Heritability:

the capacity of quantitative character to be transfered from parents to offspring is called as heritability.In terms of real genetic language the ratio of additive genetic variance to total phenotypic variance is heritability, i.e. h2 = va/vp. The improvement in progeny is fast, when heritability of that character is high and vice-versa. But inspite low heritability, a significant improvement in specific character can be achieved by using suitable selection procedures.

Hybrid-vigour:
As stated earlier any deviation from expected mean performance is called as heterosis, and positive heterosis is generally known as “hybrid-vigour” or “nicking”. Heterosis can arise from out-crossing in between various lines of same breed or strain crossing or cross-breeding.

Selection pressure:
The rigidity or intensity of selection is known as selection pressure. It is designated in terms of percentage of flock retained for breeding purpose. Higher the percentage of flock retension, lower will be the selection pressure and vice-versa. For example, selection pressure will be much more, when superior 15 per cent birds in flock are retained for breeding as compared to 50 per cent use of birds as parents.

Sexual maturity:
The age of laying first egg or the distance between day of hatch and first egg laid, is termed as sexual maturity. Earlier is the sexual maturity, more productive the bird is because it gets additional period to lay in its laying cycle of year. But some times in specific breeds pullets are presented from early sexual maturity to avoid production of smaller size eggs, egg bounds and prolapse before proper development of body.

Intensity of lay:
It is capacity of bird to lay in defined period of time. It can also be termed as rate of lay and what breeder is interested is high intensity of lay, which is the ability to lay at rapid rate. The better is intensity of lay, the more will be financial returns. In this connection the size of clutch is important. The number of eggs laid on consecutive days without gap, is known as clutch. The longer is the clutch size, the higher will be theintensity of lay. One way of measuring intensity of lay is to calculate simple percentage of production while other way is the size of clutch. It is important genetic trait but management also governs intensity of lay.

Precosity:
It can be defined as early sexual maturity.
Persistency:
The ability of hen to continue laying for longer period in her first laying cycle. In other words it is measure of length of Laying year of hen. The laying is generally terminated by moult in late summer. The longer is the length of laying cycle, more persistent the hen is. Once again it is important genetic trait associated with egg production. Persistency is highly (+ve, 0.75) correlated with annual egg production and hence important contributing factor to hen-housed egg production of bird

Feed and Nutrition Guide for Laying and Breeding Hens

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Getting Started

When the question arises about what to feed chickens or about the raising of chicken hens, then there are a number of points to consider. Poultry nutrition and feeds are made in order to fulfill the needs of the chickens in a more effective manner and also for the sake of increased egg production. There are a number of types of feeds that are used in the poultry settings. For example, chicks that have just hatched are given starter feeds. In comparison to this, grower and other forms of feed are given to the chickens in their adolescence. It is quite clear from this that chickens require varying levels of feeds and nutrients in order to grow and develop naturally. Although the ingredients that are used in the making of these feeds might be similar, still they come to impact the development of the birds in a different manner. It is an established fact that the amount of nutrients required by chickens vary in terms of their age and requirements. For example, chickens that lay eggs are required to be given some more effective feeds so that they might continue at the same pace. In terms of the specific nutrients which the chickens and birds requires, all of the feeds must contain proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, fats and much more, all of which are really crucial for their normal development. Any lack in the fulfillment of these nutrients might lead to numerous problems in the health of these animals. Below are the types of feeds used in the farm settings for  feeding chickens.

Starter Feeds

For a period of 6 weeks after hatching, the chicks are reared making use of these chicken feeds, designed specifically for them. These starter diets and nutriments are made in order to boost the speed of growth for newly hatched chicks. In terms of proteins composition, these feeds contain nearly 18 to 20 % of them. Some more efficient diets might also be used for the meat chickens which demand more amounts of proteins and other forms of nutrition for chicken.

starter feed for chicken

Developer and Grower Feeds

At the time the birds reach the age of 6 weaks, it is now time to change the feeds that are being used. Grower feeds typically contain about 15 % proteins which come in handy for maintaining the levels of growth which the animal is going through. By the time the chickens reach the age of 14 weeks, you might replace the grower feeds with the developer nutrients and feeds. The developer feed is really crucial for preparing the chickens for the stage of egg production. Here it is also important to consider that both of these feeds can also be interchanged within the time spans specified above.

grower feed for chicken

Layer and Breeder Feeds

As soon as the chickens start laying eggs, you have an option of introducing these feeds in the diets given to the chickens at these times. The choice for the required feed depends upon the purpose for which the eggs would be used. The layer feeds are specially designed for the hens laying eggs for home or table use. These feeds contain 16 % levels of proteins and high amounts of calcium so that the chickens might be able to produce better layers for an egg or the eggs with stronger shells on them. On the other side breeder feeds are given to the best laying hens and birds that produce eggs for hatching. These feeds are more or less like the layer feeds, but vary in terms of the higher levels of proteins they contain. In addition, they are also believed to contain some extra vitamins for the chickens in comparison to the layer feed for chicken.

layer feed

Medicated Feeds

Most of the medicated foods and diets are prepared to make the animals immune to the various diseases and virus attack that might come their way. In almost all of the farms in the developed countries, these feeds are offered to the flocks. These feeds aren’t normally present in the layer and breeders feeds. Those which contain some substantial amounts of such feeds are labeled. These medications are also subject to some major researches and analysis due to which you can be assured of their safety. At the same time you can also make use of the non-medicated feeds which are easily and widely available on order.

medicated feed for chicken

Water and Scratch Grains

Water is also crucial in terms of the growth and development of the eggs, due to which it should be provided in adequate amounts. Moreover, chickens also love to engage in the process of scratching by making use of their feet. So by making use of such grains, this kind of behavior can be easily reinforced. The feeds used for this purpose are either cracked or rolled.

scratch grains for chicken

Deep Litter Method and Litter Management Guide

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The nutrition value of poultry is best preserved through the proper and careful management of litter. Furthermore, it is also useful for preventing the surface and the surrounding areas from being contaminated. The importance of all types of litter management including chicken deep litter method, chicken coop deep litter method etc. is best understood in the farm house settings. So, if you plan to get the best out of your investment in poultry, then you should try to follow the standards as well as some modified strategies. There are a wide variety of maneuvers and measures when it comes to litter management. There are a number of disadvantages and damages that might be inflicted due to improper handling and poor storage techniques of the poultry litter. These effects include:

  • Loss of the nutrients value from the fertilizers
  • Spread of various diseases
  • Odor and other related issues
  • Contamination of the land and water
  • Deterioration in the health of the domesticated animals including chickens, ducks and others
Deep Litter Material

Deep material is indeed the most widely and successfully used housing system for the poultry based settings. It involves spreading dust and other sawdust materials on the floor for different purposes. The initial layers of deep litter system helps provide a bedding sheath or layer for the animals which are always exposed to the environmental changes. Furthermore, the farmers continue to add more and more layers while cleaning out the previous layers. These mechanisms helps in keeping intact, the health of the animals as well as more conducive farm house environment for the growth of the animals.

 

 

deep litter material

 

 

Tips for Deep Litter and keeping the litter un-wet

Deep litter method is based on allowing the coop and other forms of litter to grow with the passage of time. No matter you have backyard chickens, ducks or any other domesticated animals, the litter materials help provide a great amount of heat to the animals, especially in times of the winter season when the animals happen to be at great danger at the hands of the atmosphere. Here are some tips for the deep litter:

  • Adding substantial amounts of food grade at the top layer, so that the poop may dry out in no time.
  • Proper ventilation for the coop. The Importance of ventilation is really important for the respiration of the animals and for the materials to dry up. In order to estimate the levels of moisture you can pick up some litter and squeeze for seeing some change in the normal levels.
  • Try to make small ventilation holes inside the farm or the room in which the animals are being kept. It is crucial that the litter should remain dried and should be removed at set time intervals.
  • The chicken can also in keeping all the litter turned over. This maneuver is best done by adding some pieces of bread or any other material so that the chickens might also help in the litter management. For those of you who are new to farming, chickens also help in the processing of the litter and litter bedding by digging holes in the ground.
  • Furthermore, chicken poops also come in handy for making fertilizers and chicken manure. Also try to keep the water in a running position and not in the coop. But if you do want to keep it into the coop than try to make sure that the water isn’t spilled on the litter.
  • Try to make the maximum use of pie shavings and related materials for the litter management in poultry.

 

 

litter management

 

 

Disadvantages of Wet Litter

Wet litter has been proved to cause a number of harmful emissions and diseases in animals. In other words, the more wet the litter is, the higher are the chances for the spread of pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, the overall broiler production is highly effectuated by the ammonia emissions which are given off as a result of the wet litter.(A part from this it also produces bad smell in chicken house) There are various farms all over the world that have suffered detrimental effects and losses caused by the ammonia emissions. Opposite to this, the litter should also not be kept as very dry, as it might lead to problems such as dehydration. In addition, wet litter might also increase the chances of breast blister.

bacteria and fungal diseases-disadvantages of wet litter